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@fantaghiro 2017-03-27T11:40:08.000000Z 字数 21341 阅读 6437

B2U5T1 The Myth of the Renaissance in Europe

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The idea that man simply "re-found" himself during the European Renaissance ignores something quite fundamental. Jeremy Brotton argues that important developments in trade and science, as well as contact with far-flung empires, were the real causes of this seismic cultural shift.

The idea that man simply "re-found" himself during the European Renaissance ignores something quite fundamental.

Jeremy Brotton argues that important developments in trade and science, as well as contact with far-flung empires, were the real causes of this seismic cultural shift.

The European Renaissance remains one of the most important but misunderstood events in the history of western culture. The term “Renaissance” – referring to the revolution in cultural and artistic life that took place in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries – was first applied as late as the 19th century, when the French historian Jules Michelet used it in his History of France of 1855.

The European Renaissance remains one of the most important but misunderstood events in the history of western culture.

The term “Renaissance” – referring to the revolution in cultural and artistic life that took place in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries – was first applied as late as the 19th century, when the French historian Jules Michelet used it in his History of France of 1855.

The Renaissance “… went from Columbus to Copernicus, from Copernicus to Galileo, from the discovery of the earth to that of the heavens. Man re-found himself”, according to Michelet. For him the voyage of Columbus in the 15th century, and the scientific achievements of Copernicus and Galileo in the 16th, defined a decisive shift from the narrow, religious world of the Middle Ages, and anticipated the modern world of science, technology and rationalism.

The Renaissance “… went from Columbus to Copernicus, from Copernicus to Galileo, from the discovery of the earth to that of the heavens. Man re-found himself”, according to Michelet.

For him the voyage of Columbus in the 15th century, and the scientific achievements of Copernicus and Galileo in the 16th, defined a decisive shift from the narrow, religious world of the Middle Ages, and anticipated the modern world of science, technology and rationalism.

Michelet’s invention of the Renaissance was refined and established by the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt, in his book The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860). For Burckhardt, the Renaissance was a specifically Italian phenomenon, nurtures in the city-states of the 15th century, where the artistic talents of the likes of Leonardo, Botticelli, Mantegna and Brunelleschi flourished.

Michelet’s invention of the Renaissance was refined and established by the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt, in his book The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860).

For Burckhardt, the Renaissance was a specifically Italian phenomenon, nurtured in the city-states of the 15th century, where the artistic talents of the likes of Leonardo, Botticelli, Mantegna and Brunelleschi flourished.

Like Michelet, Burckhardt believed that the cultural achievements of the period heralded a “rebirth” of the classical Greek and Roman values of literary purity and aesthetic beauty. Both these historians believed that the Renaissance represented a questioning of religious authority, and a new spirit of artistic experimentation and scientific curiosity, which would ultimately give birth to modern, secular man.

Like Michelet, Burckhardt believed that the cultural achievements of the period heralded a “rebirth” of the classical Greek and Roman values of literary purity and aesthetic beauty.

Both these historians believed that the Renaissance represented a questioning of religious authority, and a new spirit of artistic experimentation and scientific curiosity, which would ultimately give birth to modern, secular man.

Until very recently, this invention of the European Renaissance has remained a powerful and seductive myth, which has ignored much of what was truly revolutionary about this extraordinary period in European history. The problem with the approach of both Michelet and Burckhardt to the Renaissance is that it reflected their own 19th-century world, characterized by European imperialism, industrial expansion, the decline of the church, and a romantic vision of the role of the artist in society.

Until very recently, this invention of the European Renaissance has remained a powerful and seductive myth, which has ignored much of what was truly revolutionary about this extraordinary period in European history.

The problem with the approach of both Michelet and Burckhardt to the Renaissance is that it reflected their own 19th-century world, characterized by European imperialism, industrial expansion, the decline of the church, and a romantic vision of the role of the artist in society.

Neither of these writers explored how trade, finance, science and exchange with other cultures decisively shaped what they saw as the cultural flowering of the European Renaissance. Only now, in our more complex and interdependent global world, has it become possible to piece together a much more complex and dynamic picture of what really drove the cultural accomplishments of this remarkable period.

Neither of these writers explored how trade, finance, science and exchange with other cultures decisively shaped what they saw as the cultural flowering of the European Renaissance.

Only now, in our more complex and interdependent global world, has it become possible to piece together a much more complex and dynamic picture of what really drove the cultural accomplishments of this remarkable period.

What underpinned all the great artistic, literary and architectural achievements that we now see as quintessentially “Renaissance” was an equally momentous revolution in trade and finance. Ever since the Crusades of the 12th century, a politically fragmented and economically undeveloped Europe looked to the cultures of the east for luxury, wealth and new ways of doing business.

What underpinned all the great artistic, literary and architectural achievements that we now see as quintessentially “Renaissance” was an equally momentous revolution in trade and finance.

Ever since the Crusades of the 12th century, a politically fragmented and economically undeveloped Europe looked to the cultures of the east for luxury, wealth and new ways of doing business.

Early European maps show North Africa and what we would today call the Middle East at the heart of the known world. This was where Spanish and Italian merchants travelled to purchase the luxury goods, like silk, spices and ceramics.

Early European maps show North Africa and what we would today call the Middle East at the heart of the known world.

This was where Spanish and Italian merchants travelled to purchase the luxury goods, like silk, spices and ceramics.

The bazaars of the east also taught European merchants new ways of doing business. As early as the very beginning of the 13th century, the Pisan merchant Leonardo Pisan was travelling and trading throughout the Arabic east, where he gained the ability to calculate profit and loss using Hindu-Arabic numerals.

The bazaars of the east also taught European merchants new ways of doing business.

As early as the very beginning of the 13th century, the Pisan merchant Leonardo Pisan was travelling and trading throughout the Arabic east, where he gained the ability to calculate profit and loss using Hindu-Arabic numerals.

In his revolutionary book Liber abbaci (1202) he introduced Europe to the Arabic methods of subtraction, addition and multiplication, explaining how he was “marvelously instructed in the Arabic-Hindu numerals and calculation”, and how they helped him in his business. Other European merchants openly traded with Muslim, African and Hindu businessmen, regardless of religious and cultural difference.

In his revolutionary book Liber abbaci (1202) he introduced Europe to the Arabic methods of subtraction, addition and multiplication, explaining how he was “marvelously instructed in the Arabic-Hindu numerals and calculation”, and how they helped him in his business.

Other European merchants openly traded with Muslim, African and Hindu businessmen, regardless of religious and cultural difference.

Europeans also learned the commercial usefulness of algebra from the Persian astronomer al-knowarizmi, and adopted the word “cheque” from the Arabic “sakk”. International finance became increasingly liquid and intricate during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, and Florentine merchants based in the Medici bank opened offices throughout the east from the early 15th century onwards. They used “bills of exchange”, forerunners of the modern cheque, to secure lucrative contracts with Muslim merchants, who possessed the luxury objects desired by the elite of 15th-century Italy.

Europeans also learned the commercial usefulness of algebra from the Persian astronomer al-knowarizmi, and adopted the word “cheque” from the Arabic “sakk”.

International finance became increasingly liquid and intricate during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, and Florentine merchants based in the Medici bank opened offices throughout the east from the early 15th century onwards.

They used “bills of exchange”, forerunners of the modern cheque, to secure lucrative contracts with Muslim merchants, who possessed the luxury objects desired by the elite of 15th-century Italy.

The result of this increasingly international trade revolutionized taste in Europe. The impact was felt on the art and culture of the 15th century. Religious and political commissions for altarpieces, frescoes and portraits of the rich and the powerful would often stipulate the amounts of expensive raw materials from the east that artists had to use to increase the opulence and grandeur of their creations.

The result of this increasingly international trade revolutionized taste in Europe.

The impact was felt on the art and culture of the 15th century.

Religious and political commissions for altarpieces, frescoes and portraits of the rich and the powerful would often stipulate the amounts of expensive raw materials from the east that artists had to use to increase the opulence and grandeur of their creations.

Patrons drew up contracts with artists that specified the exact amounts of gold and silver to be used in the painting. For many people, the splendor of the painting was reflected by the sheer amount of material expense lavished on its creation.

Patrons drew up contracts with artists that specified the exact amounts of gold and silver to be used in the painting.

For many people, the splendor of the painting was reflected by the sheer amount of material expense lavished on its creation.

Some Italian city-states laid claim to political preeminence through the commissioning of hugely ambitious works of art. In Florence, the commercial power of the Medici family bankrolled Brunelleschi’s dome (1437), Donatello’s statue David (c. 1420s), and Benozzo Gozzoli’s extraordinary frescoes depicting the Adoration of the Magi (1459), which adorned the walls of the Medici Palace. As well as triumphant artistic achievements, these creations all celebrated the political and financial power of the family that had commissioned them: the Medici.

Some Italian city-states laid claim to political preeminence through the commissioning of hugely ambitious works of art.

In Florence, the commercial power of the Medici family bankrolled Brunelleschi’s dome (1437), Donatello’s statue David (c. 1420s), and Benozzo Gozzoli’s extraordinary frescoes depicting the Adoration of the Magi (1459), which adorned the walls of the Medici Palace.

As the flow of exotic goods from east and west reached the markets of northern Europe, Albrecht Durer was one among many artists recording his delight at “wonderful works of art, and I marveled at the subtle ingeniousness of people in foreign lands”. He snapped up porcelain, parrots, sandalwood and coconuts, many of which he incorporated into his drawings and paintings.

As the flow of exotic goods from east and west reached the markets of northern Europe, Albrecht Durer was one among many artists recording his delight at “wonderful works of art, and I marveled at the subtle ingeniousness of people in foreign lands”.

He snapped up porcelain, parrots, sandalwood and coconuts, many of which he incorporated into his drawings and paintings.

Just like Mantegna, Brunelleschi and Leonardo before him, Durer was a worldly and inquisitive artist, who was intimately connected to the latest developments in trade, politics and science – and this is exactly what gives Renaissance art its vivid originality and technical brilliance. What we’re left with is a vision of the Renaissance as a much dirtier, more worldly place than Michelet and Burckhardt believed, but this only adds to its singular importance in the history of western cultural life.

Just like Mantegna, Brunelleschi and Leonardo before him, Durer was a worldly and inquisitive artist, who was intimately connected to the latest developments in trade, politics and science – and this is exactly what gives Renaissance art its vivid originality and technical brilliance.

What we’re left with is a vision of the Renaissance as a much dirtier, more worldly place than Michelet and Burckhardt believed, but this only adds to its singular importance in the history of western cultural life.

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